Citation :

Gbigbidje Favour Peter, Omughele Reuben Avwerosuo, Uyesievwa Samuel, Ogbodogbo Oghenevwogaga Precious, Oghuvwu Blessing Edirin, Omoboye Hosea John, "A Systematic Review of Challenges in the Implementation and Integration of Decentralized Microgrids," International Journal of Recent Engineering Science (IJRES), vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 29-45, 2026. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23497157/IJRES-V13I2P104

Abstract

Decentralized microgrids are necessary for global decarbonization, making the grid more resilient and expanding universal access. But a complicated web of interconnected challenges makes it very hard for them to be widely commercialized. This systematic review thoroughly examines these deployment challenges within technical, economic, social, environmental, and policy frameworks. While employing dual-lens analytical methodology, 105 peer-reviewed publications and reports published from 2014 onwards were aggregated from ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and Academia. The results show that complicated inverter control requirements, non-detection zones in islanding, and power quality degradation make it much harder to deploy technology. The high upfront capital costs of battery energy storage systems and the lack of local peer-to-peer electricity marketplaces make it hard for local residents to make investments, especially in low-income areas. To promote real energy democracy, social integration needs to get past behavioral resistance, “NIMBYism,” and a history of uncertainty in institutions. The unsustainable mining of vital minerals and the impending catastrophe of technological waste create significant ecological contradictions. Also, old, centralized regulatory frameworks and the absence of common interoperability standards make these administrative problems much worse. A cross-regional analysis reveals significant geographic disparities: Europe and North America focus on the digital integration of prosumers and the reinforcement of legacy grids against severe weather, whereas emerging economies in Africa and South Asia contend with fundamental rural electrification amid inadequate infrastructure. This assessment provides a strategic path to fill these research gaps. It focuses on AI-driven predictive controllers, circular economy frameworks for batteries that have already been used, and the harmonization of grid codes around the world.

Keywords

Decentralized microgrids, Distributed energy resources, Energy policy, Grid resilience, Renewable energy integration.

References

[1] Adam Hirsch, Yael Parag, and Josep Guerrero, “Microgrids: A Review of Technologies, Key Drivers, and Outstanding Issues,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 90, pp. 402-411, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[2] Marlon Hamani Bellido et al., “Barriers, Challenges and Opportunities for Microgrid Implementation: The Case of Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 188, pp. 203-216, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[3] Miguel Carpintero-Rentería, David Santos-Martín, and Josep M. Guerrero, “Microgrids Literature Review Through a Layers Structure," Energies, vol. 12, no. 22, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[4] M.F. Roslan et al., “Microgrid Control Methods Toward Achieving Sustainable Energy Management,” Applied Energy, vol. 240, pp. 583-607, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[5] Nima Khosravi et al., “Microgrid Stability: A Comprehensive Review of Challenges, Trends, and Emerging Solutions,” International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, vol. 170, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[6] Younes Zahraoui et al., “Energy Management System in Microgrids: A Comprehensive Review,” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 19, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[7] Oluleke O. Babayomi et al., “A Review of Renewable Off-grid Mini-grids in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Frontiers in Energy Research, vol. 10, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[8] Vinny Motjoadi, Pitshou N. Bokoro, and Moses O. Onibonoje, “A Review of Microgrid-Based Approach to Rural Electrification in South Africa: Architecture and Policy Framework,” Energies, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 1-22, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[9] Abubakar Sadiq Aliyu, Joseph O. Dada, and Ibrahim Khalil Adam, “Current Status and Future Prospects of Renewable Energy in Nigeria,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 48, pp. 336-346, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[10] N. Phuangpornpitak, and S. Tia, “Opportunities and Challenges of Integrating Renewable Energy in Smart Grid System,” Energy Procedia, vol. 34, pp. 282-290, 2013.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[11] Stephanie Lenhart, and Kathleen Araújo, “Microgrid Decision-making by Public Power Utilities in the United States: A Critical Assessment of Adoption and Technological Profiles,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 139, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[12] Junior Alexis Villanueva-Rosario et al., “Coordinated Ancillary Services, Market Participation and Communication of Multi-Microgrids: A Review,” Applied Energy, vol. 308, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[13] Antonine Boche, Clement Foucher, and Luiz Fernando Lavado Villa, “Understanding Microgrid Sustainability: A Systemic and Comprehensive Review,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 8, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[14] Martin Warneryd, Maria Håkansson, and Kersti Karltorp, “Unpacking the Complexity of Community Microgrids: A Review of Institutions' Roles for Development of Microgrids,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 121, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[15] Farshid Norouzi et al., “A Review of Socio-technical Barriers to Smart Microgrid Development,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 167, pp. 1-17, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[16] Erdal Irmak, Ersan Kabalci, and Yasin Kabalci, “Digital Transformation of Microgrids: A Review of Design, Operation, Optimization, and Cybersecurity,” Energies, vol. 16, no. 12, pp. 1-58, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[17] Younes Zahraoui et al., “Market Mechanisms and Trading in Microgrid Local Electricity Markets: A Comprehensive Review,” Energies, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 1-52, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[18] S. Punitha, N.P. Subramaniam, and P. Ajay D Vimal Raj, “A Comprehensive Review of Microgrid Challenges in Architectures, Mitigation Approaches, and Future Directions,” Journal of Electrical Systems and Information Technology, vol. 11, pp. 1-21, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[19] Afifa Akter et al., “A Review on Microgrid Optimization with Meta-heuristic Techniques: Scopes, Trends and Recommendation,” Energy Strategy Reviews, vol. 51, pp. 1-27, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[20] G.L. Nascimento Silva et al., “A Review on Microgrids for the Distributed Integration of Renewable Hydrogen Production with the Power System,” Latin American Journal of Energy Research, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 192-211, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[21] M.Y. Arafat, M.J. Hossain, and Md. Morshed Alam, “Machine Learning Scopes on Microgrid Predictive Maintenance: Potential Frameworks, Challenges, and Prospects,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 190, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[22] Pavitra Sharma et al., “A Critical and Comparative Review of Energy Management Strategies for Microgrids,” Applied Energy, vol. 327, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[23] Obed Nelson Onsomu, and Bulent Yeşilata, “Review of Microgrid Energy Management Techniques on Virtual Power Plant System,” Journal of Optimization and Decision Making, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 381-388, 2023.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[24] Adebayo Dosa, Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju, and Felix Mora-Camino, “A Comprehensive Review of Hybrid Renewable Microgrids: Key Design Parameters, Optimization Techniques, and the Role of Demand Response in Enhancing System Flexibility,” Energies, vol. 18, no. 19, pp. 1-40, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[25] Hamdi Abdi, “A Brief Review of Microgrid Surveys, by Focusing on Energy Management System,” Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 1, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[26] Seyedmohammad Hasheminasab, Mohamad Alzayed, and Hicham Chaoui, “A Review of Control Techniques for Inverter-based Distributed Energy Resources Applications,” Energies, vol. 17, no. 12, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[27] Yousef Asadi et al., “Frequency and Voltage Control Techniques through Inverter-interfaced Distributed Energy Resources in Microgrids: A Review,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 22, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[28] Nicolas Magro, Jesus R. Vázquez, and Reyes Sánchez-Herrera, “Design and Practical Implementation of Microgrid Inverter Control using TMS320F28335 Microcontroller with Improvement in Electrical Power Quality,” Electronics, vol. 14, no. 2, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[29] Ghulam Shabbir et al., “Review of DC Microgrid Design, Optimization, and Control for the Resilient and Efficient Renewable Energy Integration,” Energies, vol. 18, no. 23, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[30] Mohammad Abu Sarhan, “An Extensive Review and Analysis of Islanding Detection Techniques in DG Systems Connected to Power Grids,” Energies, vol. 16, no. 9, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[31] Md Mainul Islam et al., “General Aspects, Islanding Detection, and Energy Management in Microgrids: A Review,” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 16, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[32] Muhammed Y. Worku et al., “Islanding Detection Methods for Microgrids: A Comprehensive Review,” Mathematics, vol. 9, no. 24, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[33] Yahya Akıl, Ali Rifat Boynuegri, and Musa Yilmaz, “Robust Detection of Microgrid Islanding Events Under Diverse Operating Conditions Using RVFLN,” Energies, vol. 18, no. 17, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[34] Jose Antonio Cebollero et al., “A Survey of Islanding Detection Methods for Microgrids and Assessment of Non-detection Zones in Comparison with Grid Codes,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 2, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[35] Emmanuel Hernández-Mayoral et al., “A Comprehensive Review on Power-quality Issues, Optimization Techniques, and Control Strategies of Microgrid based on Renewable Energy Sources,” Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 12, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[36] Emmanuel Hernández-Mayoral et al., “Power Quality Analysis of a Microgrid-Based on Renewable Energy Sources: A Simulation-Based Approach,” Computation, vol. 12, no. 11, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[37] Jalal Sahebkar Farkhani et al., “The Power System and Microgrid Protection—A Review,” Applied Sciences, vol. 10, no. 22, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[38] Noor Hussain et al., “Recent Developments and Challenges on AC Microgrids Fault Detection and Protection Systems–A Review,” Energies, vol. 13, no. 9, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[39] Thet Thet Oo, Kang-Wook Cho, and Soo-Jin Park, “Techno-Economic Comparison of Microgrids and Traditional Grid Expansion: A Case Study of Myanmar,” Energies, vol. 18, no. 18, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[40] Mohammad Adel Ahmed et al., “Techno-economic Optimal Planning of an Industrial Microgrid Considering Integrated Energy Resources,” Frontiers in Energy Research, vol. 11, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[41] Yefan Wu, JinZhu Cui, and Caiyan Liu, “State-of-the-art Review on Energy Management Systems, Challenges and Top Trends of Renewable Energy based Microgrids,” EAI Endorsed Transactions on Energy Web, vol. 10, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

[42] Maarten Wolsink, “Distributed Energy Systems as Common Goods: Socio-political Acceptance of Renewables in Intelligent Microgrids,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 127, pp. 1-14, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[43] Florian Hanke, Rachel Guyet, and Marielle Feenstra, “Do Renewable Energy Communities Deliver Energy Justice? Exploring Insights from 71 Existing Initiatives,” Energy Research & Social Science, vol. 80, pp. 1-10, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[44] Gordon Walker, and Patrick Devine-Wright, “Community Renewable Energy: What Should it Mean?,” Energy Policy, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 497-500, 2008.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[45] Grigorios L. Kyriakopoulos, “Energy Communities Overview: Managerial Policies, Economic Aspects, Technologies, and Models,” Journal of Risk and Financial Management, vol. 15, no. 11, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[46] Valeriya Azarova et al., “Designing Local Renewable Energy Communities to Increase Social Acceptance: Evidence from a Choice Experiment in Austria, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland,” Energy Policy, vol. 132, pp. 1176-1183, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[47] Vasco Brummer, “Community Energy–benefits and Barriers: A Comparative Literature Review of Community Energy in the UK, Germany and the USA, The Benefits it Provides for Society and The Barriers it Faces,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 94, pp. 187-196, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[48] Emily Creamer et al., “Community Energy: Entanglements of Community, State, and Private Sector,” Geography Compass, vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 1-16, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[49] Martin Pehnt, “Dynamic Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Renewable Energy Technologies,” Renewable Energy, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 55-71, 2006.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[50] Jens F. Peters et al., “The Environmental Impact of Li-Ion Batteries and The Role of Key Parameters–A Review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 67, pp. 491-506, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[51] Dominic A. Notter et al., “Contribution of Li-ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 44, no. 17, pp. 6550-6556, 2010.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[52] Rahmat Khezri, Amin Mahmoudi, and Hirohisa Aki, “Optimal Planning of Solar Photovoltaic and Battery Storage Systems for Grid-Connected Residential Sector: Review, Challenges and New Perspectives,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 153, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[53] Lluc Canals Casals, B. Amante García, and Camille Canal, “Second Life Batteries Lifespan: Rest of Useful Life and Environmental Analysis,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 232, pp. 354-363, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[54] R.R. Hernandez et al., “Environmental Impacts of Utility-scale Solar Energy,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 29, pp. 766-779, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[55] Elisabeth A. Gilmore, Lester B. Lave, and Peter J. Adams, “The Costs, Air Quality, and Human Health Effects of Meeting Peak Electricity Demand with Installed Backup Generators,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 40, no. 22, pp. 6887-6893, 2006.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[56] Binod Prasad Koirala et al., “Energetic Communities for Community Energy: A Review of Key Issues and Trends Shaping Integrated Community Energy Systems,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 56, pp. 722-744, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[57] Emi Minghui Gui, and Iain MacGill, “Typology of Future Clean Energy Communities: An Exploratory Structure, Opportunities, and Challenges,” Energy Research & Social Science, vol. 35, pp. 94-107, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[58] Özgur Yildiz et al., “Renewable Energy Cooperatives as Gatekeepers or Facilitators? Recent Developments in Germany and A Multidisciplinary Research Agenda,” Energy Research & Social Science, vol. 6, pp. 59-73, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[59] Yael Parag, and Benjamin K. Sovacool, “Electricity Market Design for the Prosumer Era,” Nature Energy, vol. 1, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[60] J. Lowitzsch, C.E. Hoicka, and F.J. van Tulder, “Renewable Energy Communities Under the 2019 European Clean Energy Package–Governance Model for the Energy Clusters of the Future?,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 122, pp. 1-13, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[61] Saskia Lavrijssen, and Arturo Carrillo Parra, “Radical Prosumer Innovations in the Electricity Sector and the Impact on Prosumer Regulation,” Sustainability, vol. 9, no. 7, pp. 1-21, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[62] Esther Mengelkamp et al., “Designing Microgrid Energy Markets: A Case Study: The Brooklyn Microgrid,” Applied Energy, vol. 210, pp. 870-880, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[63] Maciej M. Sokołowski, “Renewable and Citizen Energy Communities in the European Union: How (not) to Regulate Community Energy in National Laws and Policies,” Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 289-304, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[64] Wayes Tushar et al., “Peer-to-peer Energy Systems for Connected Communities: A Review of Recent Advances and Emerging Challenges,” Applied Energy, vol. 282, pp. 1-33, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[65] Dimitrios Mentis et al., “Lighting the World: The First Application of an Open Source, Spatial Electrification Tool (OnSSET) on Sub-Saharan Africa,” Environmental Research Letters, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 1-18, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[66] Kofi Nyarko, Jonathan Whale, and Tania Urmee, “Drivers and Challenges of Off-grid Renewable Energy-based Projects in West Africa: A Review,” Heliyon, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 1-20, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[67] Gregor Schwerhoff, and Mouhamadou Sy, “Financing Renewable Energy in Africa–Key Challenge of the Sustainable Development Goals,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 75, pp. 393-401, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[68] Emilia Ines Come Zebra et al., “A Review of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems in Mini-grids for Off-grid Electrification in Developing Countries,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 144, pp. 1-23, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[69] Jorg Peters, Maximiliane Sievert, and Michael A. Toman, “Rural Electrification through Mini-grids: Challenges Ahead,” Energy Policy, vol. 132, pp. 27-31, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[70] Lily Odarno et al., “Accelerating Mini-grid Deployment in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from Tanzania,” Report, World Resources Institute, pp. 1-108, 2017.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[71] Helene Ahlborg, and Linus Hammar, “Drivers and Barriers to Rural Electrification in Tanzania and Mozambique–Grid-Extension, off-Grid, and Renewable Energy Technologies,” Renewable Energy, vol. 61, pp. 117-124, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[72] David Ockwell, and Rob Byrne, “Improving Technology Transfer through National Systems of Innovation: Climate Relevant Innovation-System Builders (CRIBs),” Climate Policy, vol. 16, no. 7, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[73] Richard Wallsgrove et al., “The Emerging Potential of Microgrids in the Transition to 100% Renewable Energy Systems,” Energies, vol. 14, no. 6, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[74] Muhammad Saqib Niaz et al., “Beyond the Curve: How Economic Complexity and Pandemics Reshape the Energy-Emissions Nexus in Asia,” IEEE Access, vol. 14, pp. 22946-22957, 2026.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[75] Xue Zhou, Jianan Shou, and Weiwei Cui, “A Game-Theoretic Approach to Design Solar Power Generation/Storage Microgrid System for the Community in China,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 16, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[76] Xiqin Li et al., “Multi-Objective Operation Optimization of Park Microgrid Based on Green Power Trading Price Prediction in China,” Energies, vol. 18, no. 1, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[77] Yang Wu, Yui-Yip Lau, and Ju-Ai Wu, “Integration of Electric Vehicles into Microgrids: Policy Implication for the Industrial Application of Carbon Neutralisation in China,” World Electric Vehicle Journal, vol. 13, no. 6, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[78] Naqash Ahmad et al., “From Smart Grids to Super Smart Grids: A Roadmap for Strategic Demand Management for Next Generation SAARC and European Power Infrastructure,” IEEE Access, vol. 11, pp. 12303-12341, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[79] Ashish Gulagi et al., “Transition Pathway Towards 100% Renewable Energy Across the Sectors of Power, Heat, Transport, and Desalination for the Philippines,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 144, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[80] Jariyati Burhanuddin et al., “A Review of Wave Energy Converters in the Southeast Asia Region,” IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 125754-125771, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[81] Alexander A. Hernandez et al., “Peer-to-Peer Energy Resource Sharing in Rural Communities: Enabling Technologies, Applications, and Challenges,” IEEE Access, vol. 13, pp. 69353-69368, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[82] Erdiwansyah et al., “A Critical Review of the Integration of Renewable Energy Sources with Various Technologies,” Protection and Control of Modern Power Systems, vol. 6, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[83] Deng Xu, and Yong Long, “The Impact of Government Subsidy on Renewable Microgrid Investment Considering Double Externalities,” Sustainability, vol. 11, no. 11, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[84] Tao Wei, Haixia Li, and Junfeng Miao, “Integration and Development Path of Smart Grid Technology: Technology-driven, Policy Framework and Application Challenges,” Processes, vol. 13, no. 8, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[85] August Wierling et al., “Statistical Evidence on the Role of Energy Cooperatives for the Energy Transition in European Countries,” Sustainability, vol. 10, no. 9, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[86] Michale Krug et al., “Mainstreaming Community Energy: Is the Renewable Energy Directive a Driver of Renewable Energy Communities in Germany and Italy?,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 12, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[87] Campos Inês et al., “Regulatory Challenges and Opportunities for Collective Renewable Energy Prosumers in the EU,” Energy Policy, vol. 138, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[88] Maria Lorena Tuballa, and Michael Lochinvar Abundo, “A Review of the Development of Smart Grid Technologies,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 59, pp. 710-725, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[89] Donal Brown, Stephen Hall, and Mark E. Davis, “What is Prosumerism for? Exploring the Normative Dimensions of Decentralised Energy Transitions,” Energy Research & Social Science, vol. 66, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[90] Saskia Lavrijssen, Brenda Espinosa Apráez, and Thijs Ten Caten, “The Legal Complexities of Processing and Protecting Personal Data in the Electricity Sector,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 3, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[91] Aura Caramizaru, and Andreas Uihlein, Energy Communities: An Overview of Energy and Social Innovation, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, 2020.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[92] Akhtar Hussain, Van-Hai Bui, and Hak-Man Kim, “Microgrids as a Resilience Resource and Strategies used by Microgrids for Enhancing Resilience,” Applied Energy, vol. 240, pp. 56-72, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[93] Nicholas D. Laws et al., “Impacts of Valuing Resilience on Cost-Optimal PV and Storage Systems for Commercial Buildings,” Renewable Energy, vol. 127, pp. 896-909, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[94] Alexis Kwasinski et al., “Hurricane Maria effects on Puerto Rico Electric Power Infrastructure,” IEEE Power and Energy Technology Systems Journal, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 85-94, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[95] A. Cagnano, E. De Tuglie, and P. Mancarella, “Microgrids: Overview and Guidelines for Practical Implementations and Operation,” Applied Energy, vol. 258, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[96] Pedro Ciller et al., “Optimal Electrification Planning Incorporating On-Grid and Off-Grid Technologies: The Reference Electrification Model (REM),” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 107, no. 9, pp. 1872-1905, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]

[97] Daniel E. Olivares et al., “Trends in Microgrid Control,” IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1905-1919, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]